HOMEWORK SOLUTION SET 2 (Completed at 10 PM)

BIOLOGY1361
HOMEWORK SOLUTION SET 2

Review Exercises / Critical Thinking problems

Chapter 7: (1 – 20) on page 203

1. List and describe briefly the 5 functions of the skeleton/skeletal system.
a. support
b. protection
c. manufacture of cells
d. movement
e. strength
2. What’s the “osteon”? The fundamental functional unit of compact or dense bone; in mammals, birds, reptiles
3. What’s the function of cartilage? Provide more flexibility at joints and to provide support where bone is not used. No blood vessels in cartilage.
4. What’s the process of endochondral ossification (include osteoblasts and osteoclasts)? One of two processes resulting in the formation of normal, healthy bone tissue, done in presence of cartilage, creates the bone tissue.
5. What is the purpose of the epiphyseal plate? A cartilage plate that turns into bone, present in kids, but not so much in adults.
6. What bones are in the axial skeleton? Skull, neck, spinal cord, rib cage; In the appendicular skeleton? The rest (limbs, etc.)
7. Name the 5 sections of the vertebral column with the number of vertebrae in each.
a. Cervical, 7
b. Thoracic, 12
c. Lumbar, 5
d. Sacral, 5
e. Coccygeal, 4
8. What the heck are true, false, and floating ribs? How many each are there?
a. True: The 7 true ones that are fully formed in the sternum
b. False: The false ribs are the five sets of ribs below the top 7 true ribs
c. Floating: Four ribs the lower end, attached to the vertebral column, not to the sternum
9. What’s a synarthrotic joint? A type that allows limited movement
10. What’s an amphiarthrotic joint? Two-way
11. What’s a diarthrotic joint? Same as synovial joint
12. What’s a joint capsule? an envelope surrounding a synovial joint
13. What are open, closed, and comminuted fractures?
a. Open – through the skin
b. Closed – not through skin
c. Comminuted – hair fracture
14. The three types of arthritis are:
a. Osteo
b. Rheumatoid
c. Gout
d. Many others
15. When a patient receives a bone marrow transplant, what vital process is being restored? Manufacture of blood cells
16. Explain how the canaliculi allow bone to heal more efficiently than cartilage. It supplies blood to the bone; no blood vessels in cartilage
17. What effect does the task of child bearing have on the difference between the male and female skeleton? Female has a wider pelvis to accommodate
18. Is it possible to tell whether a child is going to grow any taller? If so, how? If not, who cares? Yes, check growth hormone; genetics
19. Compare and contrast the causes and changes associated with osteoporosis, osteomalacia, and Paget disease. See cure in today’s article*
20. Why is mastoiditis potentially more dangerous than a paranasal sinus infection? mastoiditis is a deep ear infection that can spread to the brain and kill the person.

*Cure for Osteoporosis Has Been Found
HealthDay.com
February 8, 2010

An experimental drug that inhibits serotonin in the gut cured osteoporosis in lab mice and rats, a new study has found.
Previous research has shown that serotonin in the gut hinders bone formation. Most current drugs for osteoporosis only prevent the breakdown of bone; they don't build bone.
"New therapies that inhibit the production of serotonin in the gut have the potential to become a [new] class of drugs to be added to the therapeutic arsenal against osteoporosis," study author Dr. Gerard Karsenty, chairman of the department of genetics and development at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, said in a university news release.
In the new study, published in the Feb. 7 issue of Nature Medicine, small daily doses of the new drug were given by mouth for up to six weeks to rodents with postmenopausal osteoporosis. The treatment prevented osteoporosis from developing or fully cured rodents in which osteoporosis was already present.
While the drug inhibited serotonin in the gut, levels of serotonin remained normal in the rodents' brains. This indicates that the drug didn't enter general circulation and wasn't able to cross the blood-brain barrier, thus greatly reducing the risk of side effects.
"With tens of millions of people worldwide affected by this devastating and debilitating bone loss, there is an urgent need for new treatments that not only stop bone loss but also build new bone. Using these findings, we are working hard to develop this type of treatment for human patients," Karsenty said.

Chapter 8: (1-22) on pages 230-231

1. Describe the structure of the cardiac muscle. Involuntary striated
2. Describe the structure of the smooth muscle. Involuntary, not striated
3. Give the function of tendons, bursae, and synovial membranes.
a. Tendons – connects bones along and across bones
b. Bursae – fluid filled sacs that cushion bones and such
c. Synovial membranes - is the soft tissue that lines the non-cartilage surfaces of joints
4. Explain how tonic contractions help maintain posture. These are sustained contraction of a muscle subjected to vibration so as to hold one up
5. Give an example of how two body systems other than the muscular system contribute to the movement of the body.
a. One The movement of body structures is accomplished by the contraction of muscles
b. Two See (a)

6. Explain twitch and tetanic contractions. When a motor unit has been maximally stimulated by its neuron; This happens due to multiple impulses stimulating the motor unit and not giving it time to relax between contractions, thus the strength of impulse is increased as it is added to the previous impulse, creating a maximal contraction.
7. Explain isotonic contractions. The muscle tension remains unchanged and the muscle's length changes. Lifting an object off a desk is an example of isotonic contractions.
8. Explain isometric contractions. A type of strength training Isometrics are done in static positions, rather than being dynamic movement; weight lifting.
9. Name two muscles in the head, or neck and give the origin, insertion, and function of each.
a. One: Sternomastoid muscle - a paired muscle in the superficial layers of the anterior portion of the neck. It acts to flex and rotate the head. It also acts as an accessory muscle of inspiration.
b. Two: Scalene muscles - are a group of three pairs of muscles in the lateral neck, namely the scalenus anterior, medius, and posterior. They are innervated by the spinal nerves. They originate from the transverse processes from the cervical vertebrae of C2 to C7 and insert onto the first and second ribs. The function of the anterior and middle scalene muscles is to elevate the first rib and rotate the neck to the same side; the action of the posterior scalene is to elevate the second rib and tilt the neck to the opposite side. They also act as accessory muscles of inspiration,

10. Name two muscles that move the upper extremity and give the origin, insertion and function of each.
a. Trapezius; rear of skull, clavicle, retraction of scapula
b. Pectoralis major; clavicle & sternum, humerus, movement of humerus
11. Name two muscles of the trunk and give the origin, insertion and function of each.
a. Abdominal external oblique muscle; lower 8 costae, ligamentum iguinali, rotates torso
b. Abdominal internal oblique muscle; inguinal ligament, sternum & inferior ribs, compresses abdomen
12. Name three muscles of the lower extremity and give the origin, insertion and function of each.
a. Tibialis posterior; tibia, foot, dorsiflex & invert foot and ankle
b. Longus; fibula, foot, plantarflexion
c. Tibialis anterior; tibia, foot, dorsiflex & invert foot
13. Describe the following movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation.
a. Flexion – a position that is made possible by the joint angle decreasing. The skeletal and muscular systems work together to move the joint into a "flexed" position.
b. Extension – movement of a joint whereby one part of the body is moved away from another
c. Abduction – a type of movement which draws a limb away from the median plane of the body
d. Adduction – a movement which brings a limb closer to the y-z plane of the body. It is opposed to abduction
e. Rotation – a movement that allows joint to move in rotation
14. What signs and symptoms are likely to accompany a moderate muscle strain?
localized pain, stiffness, discoloration, strange odors and bruising.
15. What causes the signs and symptoms of myasthenia gravis?
Fatigue; Muscles become progressively weaker during periods of activity and improve after periods of rest
16. Draw and label a relaxed sarcomere; explain the process that causes a sarcomere to contract. (a sarcomere is the basic unit of muscle tissue; multi-protein complexes composed of three different filament systems).
17. Explain the interaction of the prime mover, the synergist, and the antagonist efficient movement. The first is the main muscle, the second is a catalyst to help it work, and the antagonist is what the prime mover is working against
18. Describe the condition that causes a muscle to develop pan “oxygen debt.” How is the debt paid off? The muscle uses more oxygen than “normal” and runs low on it, sometimes stealing from other tissues, but it is paid off by the person breathing harder, faster for a period of time.
19. Why can a spinal cord injury be followed by muscle paralysis? The nerves that control the muscles can be “cut off” and no longer send signals.
20. Can a muscle contract very long if its blood supply is shut off? Give a reason for your answer. No, except in rigor mortis
21. Briefly explain changes that gradually take place in bones, joints, and muscles in a person who habitually gets too little exercise. Atrophy, weakening, calcification
22. Briefly explain the progression of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Chronic and terminal withering of muscle tone and strength

Chapter 9: (1-31) on page 276

1. Draw and label the three parts of the neuron and explain the function of the dendrite and axon. A nerve cell is the neuron, with the dendrites being the branched projections that conduct the electrical impulses and the axon is the long slender “cable” that connects one cell to another.
2. Name the three types of neurons classified to the direction in which the impulse is being transmitted. Define or explain each of them.
a. Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system and are sometimes also called sensory neurons
b. Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system to the effector cells and are sometimes called motor neurons
c. Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system.
Afferent and efferent can also refer generally to neurons which, respectively, bring information to or send information from the brain region.
3. Define or explain the following terms: myelin, nodes of Ranvier, and neurolemma.
a. Myelin – An electrical insulator material that forms a layer, the myelin sheath, usually around only the axon of the neuron
b. Nodes of Ranvier - the gaps (approximately one micrometer in length) formed between the myelin sheaths generated by different cells.
c. Neurolemma - the outermost nucleated cytoplasmic layer of Schwann cells the surrounds the axon of the neuron. It forms the outermost layer of the nerve fiber in the peripheral nervous system.
4. Name and give the function of the 3 types of glia cells. First of all, they are called neuroglia or simply glia (Greek for "glue"), and are non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and provide support and protection for the brain's neurons. In the human brain, there is roughly one glia for every neuron with a ratio of about two neurons for every three glia in the cerebral gray matter.
a. Microglia: these are like specialized macrophages capable of phagocytosis that protect neurons of the central nervous system. They are derived from hematopoietic precursors rather than ectodermal tissue; they are commonly categorized as such because of their supportive role to neurons.
These cells comprise approximately 15% of the total cells of the central nervous system. They are found in all regions of the brain and spinal cord. Microglial cells are small relative to macroglial cells, with changing shapes and oblong nuclei. They are mobile within the brain and multiply when the brain is damaged. In the healthy central nervous system, microglia processes constantly sample all aspects of their environment (neurons, macroglia and blood vessels).
b. Macroglia: There are 7 types of these cells; the most relevant are the astrocytes.
c. Other: See b.

5. What occurs at the cellular level in M.S.? And what effect does this have on the body? The myelin sheaths around the axons disintegrate; MS affects the ability of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord to communicate with each other.
6. From what type of cells or tissues do neuromas develop? This is a tumor in neurons
7. Define or explain the following terms: epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium.
a. Epineurium - the outermost layer of connective tissue surrounding a peripheral nerve. It includes the blood vessels supplying the nerve
b. Perineurium - The perineurium is composed of connective tissue, and acts as a protective sheath around the fascicles.
c. Endoneurium – A protective sheath of cells wrapped around nerve cells.
8. What causes gray matter to be gray, and white matter to be white? What color is the White House? In living tissue, gray matter actually has a gray-brown color which comes from capillary blood vessels and neuronal cell bodies; white matter is from the white myelin sheaths
9. Explain how a reflex arc functions. What are the two types of reflex arc?
a. How – It is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex
b. Type one – autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs)
c. Type Two - somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles)
10. Explain what happens during a nerve impulse. What is salutatory conduction?
a. What happens - a transient alteration of the transmembrane voltage (or membrane potential) across an excitable membrane in an excitable cell such as a neuron, generated by the activity of voltage-gated ion channels embedded in the membrane.
b. A saltatory conduction - is the propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons from one node of Ranvier to the next node, increasing the conduction velocity of action potentials without needing to increase the diameter of an axon
11. Explain what occurs at a synapse. What are the two ways that neurotransmitter activity is terminated?
a. What occurs – a structure that permits a neuron to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another cell.
b. One way – chemical
c. Another way - electrical
12. What is the cause of Parkinson Disease? What are some treatment options?
a. Cause – a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs the sufferer's motor skills, speech, and other functions
b. Treatment – Medicine: L-Dopa and other meds
13. Define Dementia; unless you have dementia: Also known as "deprived of mind") it is a serious cognitive disorder. It may be the result of a unique global brain injury or progressive, resulting in long-term decline in brain function, due to damage or disease in the body beyond what might be expected from normal aging. Although dementia is far more common in old people, it may occur in any stage of adulthood. Dementia is a non-specific illness with its own set of signs and symptoms, in which affected areas of cognition may be memory, attention span, language skills, and being able to solve problems. It is normally required to be present for at least 6 months to be diagnosed
14. What is a seizure (not a legal seizure by the FBI)? A seizure is a transient symptom of excessive or synchronous neuronal activity in the brain. It can manifest as an alteration in mental states, gross motor movements, convulsions, and various other related things. The medical syndrome of recurrent, unprovoked seizures is termed epilepsy, but seizures can occur in people who do not have epilepsy.
15. List two possible causes of Alzheimer’s, if you can remember.
a. reduced synthesis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.
b. amyloid plaque deposits
16. List and describe the function of the medulla oblongata – This is the lower half of the brainstem, and contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting, and vasomotor centers and deals with autonomic functions, such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure.
17. List and describe the function of the hypothalamus - a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.
18. List and describe the function of the thalamus - a midline paired symmetrical structure within the brain. It is situated between the cerebral cortex and midbrain, both in terms of location and neurological connections. Its function includes relaying sensation, special sense and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, along with the regulation of consciousness, sleep and alertness.
19. List and describe the functions of the cerebellum – this means “little brain” in Latin. Not to be confused by Sarah Belham. It is a region of the brain that plays an important role in motor control. It is also involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language, and probably in some emotional functions such as regulating fear and pleasure responses, but its function in movement is the most clearly understood. The cerebellum does not initiate movement, but it contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing
20. Give the general function of the cerebrum. What are the specific functions of the occipital and temporal lobes?
a. Function of cerebrum – movement, sensory, olfaction, language, learning, memory
b. Functions of the occipital and temporal lobes – primary visual cortex and auditory cortex
21. List and describe the functions of the spinal cord - a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain down to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; it is the body’s sensor apparatus and the brain’s messenger service.
22. Name and explain the three layers of the meninges. This is the system of membranes which envelops the central nervous system. The primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous system.
a. Dura Mater - is a thick, durable membrane, closest to the skull
b. Arachnoid Mater - The middle element of the meninges with a spider-web appearance
c. Pia Mater - is a very delicate membrane. It is the meningeal envelope which firmly adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
23. What’s the function of the cerebrospinal fluid? Where and how is it produced?
a. What function: acts as a "cushion" or buffer for the cortex, providing a basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull.
b. Where and how: It is produced in the choroid plexus
24. How many nerve pairs are generated from the spinal cord? How many nerve pairs are generated from each section of the spinal cord? How are these nerves named? What is a “plexus”? What is a Lexus?
a. How many and How many from each section: The animal spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments. At every segment, right and left pairs of spinal nerves (mixed; sensory and motor) form. Six to eight motor nerve rootlets branch out of right and left ventro lateral sulci in a very orderly manner.
b. How are they named? I have no clue
c. Plexus is an area where neurons branch and rejoin to form a network
25. Define neuritis and neuralgia
a. Neuritis – also known as neuropathy, the term for damage to nerves of the peripheral nervous system. This may be caused either by diseases of the nerve or from the side effects of systemic illness.
b. Neuralgia – is a pain in one or more nerves that occurs without stimulation of pain receptor cells. Neuralgia pain is produced by a change in neurological structure or function rather than by the excitation of pain receptors that causes nociceptive pain.
26. What’s the cause of tic douloureux? What is the cause of Bell’s Palsy?
a. Tic douloureux – a neuropathic disorder of one or both of the trigeminal nerves. Symptoms include severe pain, and the fact that it is not easily controlled or cured. It causes episodes of intense pain in any or all of the following: the ear, eye, lips, nose, scalp, forehead, teeth or jaw on one side and alongside of the face.
b. Bell’s Palsy - a dysfunction of cranial nerve (the facial nerve) that results in inability to control facial muscles on the affected side. Several conditions can cause this. However, if no specific cause can be identified, the condition is known as Bell's palsy.
27. Explain the structure and function of the sympathetic nervous system.
a. Structure – Part of the autonomic nervous system
b. Function - mobilize the body's resources under stress; to induce the fight or flight. It is, however, constantly active at a basal level in order to maintain homeostasis.
28. Explain the structure and function of the parasympathetic nervous system.
a. Structure – Part of the autonomic nervous system
b. Function - control smooth muscle contraction, regulate cardiac muscle, or stimulate or inhibit glandular secretion. The actions of the parasympathetic nervous system can be summarized as "rest and digest
29. List the functional regions of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes.
a. Frontal – is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to (in front of) the parietal lobes and above and anterior to the temporal lobes.
b. Parietal – is positioned above (superior to) the occipital lobe and behind (posterior to) the frontal lobe. The parietal lobe integrates sensory information from different things, particularly determining spatial sense and navigation.
c. Occipital – located on the medial side of the occipital lobe within the calcarine sulcus; the full extent of V1 often continues onto the posterior pole of the occipital lobe.
d. Temporal - is located beneath the Sylvian fissure on both the left and right hemispheres of the brain.
30. Which of the cranial nerves deal primarily with motor function? Which deal primarily with the sensory function?
a. Motor – Frontal Lobe
b. Sensory – Cerebrial cortex
31. There is a type of medication that inhibits the function of acetylcholinesterase (the enzyme that deactivates acetylcholine). Explain the effect this medication would have on the visceral effectors. Only one, neostigmine, affects vision.

Chapter 10: (1-25) on page 305

1. Name the general sense found in the skin or subcutaneous tissues and list the type of stimuli to which each of them responds. Tactile sensations of heat, cold, pleasure, pain.
2. Name the two general senses of proprioception and give the location of each.
This is a third distinct sensory modality that provides feedback solely on the status of the body internally, located in the cerebellum.
3. With what type of information do proprioceptors provide us? feedback solely on the status of the body
4. Explain how the iris changes the size of the pupil. It opens and closes as a reaction to light, as a camera iris.
5. Explain how the ciliary muscles allow the eye to focus on near and far objects. By squeezing the lens, it’s focal length changes.
6. What is presbyopia and what is its cause? This is far-sightedness causes by eyes that are short.
7. Name the two types of receptor cells in the retina. Explain the differences between the two receptors. Rods and cones. One has peripheral vision the other views colors.
8. What is glaucoma and what’s its cause? It is a disease in which the optic nerve is damaged, leading to progressive, irreversible loss of vision. It is often, but not always, associated with increased pressure of the fluid in the eye
9. What are cataracts, what causes them, and how can they be prevented?
Cataracts are cloudy lenses caused by the fluid in the lens becoming cloudy, and its causes include genetics and environment.
10. What is meant by the visual pathway. Where is the blind spot and what causes it? The path that light travels through the eye. The blind spot is where the optic nerve is in junction with the retina.
11. Explain how the disorder strabismus affects vision. Cross-eyed makes the person see two images.
12. What causes diabetic retinopathy? Diabetes.
13. Briefly explain the structure of the external ear. Crescent shape with many swirls ending at the eardrum.
14. Explain how sound waves are transmitted through the middle ear. Waves vibrate a bone which then is translated to the brain.
15. Explain how sound waves are converted to an auditory impulse. Electrically.
16. Explain how the structure in the inner ear help maintain balance or equilibrium. The fluid acts as a fluid balance like a carpenter’s balance
17. What is Méniere disease? It is a disorder of the inner ear that can affect hearing and balance to a varying degree. It is characterized by episodes of dizziness and tinnitus and progressive hearing loss, usually in one ear. It is caused by lymphatic channel dilation
18. Where are the gustatory cells located, and to what four “primary“ tastes do they respond. In the cerebrum, sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.
19. Explain how the sense of smell is stimulated. Through olfactory nerves that sense the concentration or density of items.
20. Explain why food loses some of its taste when you have a rhinovirus with a congested nasal passage. Taste buds are part of the olfactory system.
21. Explain why the longer you are in a newly painted room the less you are able to smell the new paint? The new paint molecules stimulate the olfactory until they are satiated.
22. Where in the eye is light sensed? Where is it perceived? Sensed at the retina and perceived in the brain.
23. Explain why the smell of a “doctor’s office” or the smell of a turkey cooking can easily generate an emotional response. Repeated smells associated with one place will create an “aromatic memory” and you will then remember those times
24. Why are there many more men, than women, color-blind? They’re liars. No, just kidding. The xy chromosomes have more effects in the color gene.
25. Rock musicians sometimes lose their ability to hear high frequency tones; explain. The ear’s ability to hear high frequencies is sensitive, and loud music destroys the most sensitive.


Chapter 11: (1-26) on pages 336-337

1. Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands. The endocrine system is made up of a series of ductless glands that produce chemicals called hormones. A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast, exocrine glands, such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and g.i. glands, tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen. Also controls metabolism in our body system.
2. Define or explain the following terms:
a. Hormone – a chemical released by one or more cells that affects cells in other parts of the organism
b. target organ – the organ to be affected
c. hypersecretion – makes and releases too much
d. hyposecretion – makes and releases too little
3. Explain the mechanism of action of non-steroid hormones. These are drugs with analgesic, antipyretic, (fever-reducing) and, in higher doses, with anti-inflammatory effects . The most prominent members of this group of drugs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen.
4. Explain the mechanism of action of steroid hormones. These are steroids that act like hormones.
5. Explain, and give an example of a negative feedback loop for the regulation of hormone secretion. Getting AIDS or some STD from allowing one’s hormones dictate behavior.
6. Explain, and give an example of a positive feedback loop for the regulation of hormone secretion. Having a baby .
7. Explain the difference between prostaglandins and hormones. List some of the body functions that can be influences by prostaglandins. These include any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the body. They are mediators and have a variety of strong physiological effects, such as regulating the contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle tissue. Although they are technically hormones, they are rarely classified as such.
8. Describe the structure of the pituitary gland and where it is located. Not very big and at base of brain near spine.
9. Name the 4 tropic hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland and briefly explain their functions.
a. TSH – stimulate production of stuff
b. ACTH - stimulate production of other stuff
c. LH - stimulate production of more stuff
d. FSH - stimulate production of cool stuff
10. Explain the function of growth hormone. To ensure that you grow as tall as your ancestors or whatever your genome states.
11. Gigantism and acromegaly have the same cause; what is the cause and what causes the different in effect between the two conditions?
a. Cause – imbalance in hormone production
b. Difference – tall vs. large
12. Explain the function of ADH. This acts on kidneys to speed up process.
13. What is the cause of diabetes insipidus? What are the signs and symptoms of the condition?
a. Cause - a deficiency of arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as ADH.
b. Signs/symptoms Excessive thirst for cold water and and excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, with reduction of fluid intake having no effect on the latter
14. Explain the function of prolactin and oxytocin.
a. Prolactin – stimulate production of milk in breast glands
b. Oxytocin – stimulate reduction of milk
15. Explain the function of the hypothalamus in the endrocrine system. It links the nervous system to the endrocrine system via the pituitary gland.
16. Explain the difference between T3 and T4. What’s unique about the thyroid gland? Tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland primarily responsible for regulation of metabolism
17. Distinguish between cretinism and myxedma. Cretinism is a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated congenital deficiency of thyroid hormones due to maternal nutritional deficiency of iodine. While myxedma is hypothyroidism that affects skin and eyes.
18. Name the hormones produced by the zones or areas of the adrenal cortex. Androgens and corticoids.
19. What are the signs and symptoms of Cushing syndrome? Of Addington’s disease.
a. Cushing a hormone disorder caused by high levels of cortisol in the blood.
b. Addington’s a disorder where people can’t add
20. Explain the function of aldosterone - a hormone that increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and the release (secretion) of potassium in the kidneys. This increases blood volume and, therefore, increases blood pressure.
21. Explain the function of glucocorticoids – Steroid hormones that regulate of the metabolism of glucose
22. Explain why a secondary messenger system is needed for non-steroid hormones, but not for steroid hormones. Just in case.
23. Pick a body function (regulation of glucose or calcium levels in the blood) and explain how the interaction of hormones is used to help maintain homeostasis. Sex. One needs the right recipe of hormones to make sex cells correctly and the motivation to mate.
24. Why is a goiter usually more of a dietary problem rather than an endocrine problem? Causes overeating and lethargy
25. A medical doctor discovered that a patient had very low levels of thyroxine by noting high levels of TSH. Is the patient’s problem in the thyroid gland or in the pituitary gland? Explain your answer. Thyroid as the person is low on energy.
26. If a person who is diagnosed with diabetes mellitus were found to be producing a normal amount of insulin what other cause could explain the diabetes? Tumor.

Chapter 12: (1-19) on pages 369-370

1. Name several substances found in blood plasma. Blood cells, dissolved proteins, glucose, clotting factors, mineral ions, hormones, and carbon dioxide
2. Explain the function of albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
a. Albumins – water soluble protein
b. Globulins – serum protein
c. Fibrinogen – fibrous protein involved in the clotting of blood
3. What is the difference between serum and plasma? Serum is a protein.
4. What two types of connective tissue form blood cells? Where are they found and what do each of them form? Bone and the others.
5. Describe the structure of a red blood cell. What advantage does this unique shape give the red blood cell that helps it perform its function? Carries iron and oxygen.
6. Both aplastic anemia and pernicious anemia are characterized by low red blood cell count; explain the difference in their causes. Aplastic is from the bone marrow having a low production of red blood cells; pernicious is the loss of ability to absorb vitamin B-12
7. What is the buffy coat? Leukocyte and platelet layer between plasma and blood
8. Explain the function of neutrophils and monocytes; neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell, while monocytes are specialized white blood cells that organize and move fast
9. Explain the function of lymphocytes. They kill bad bacteria
10. Explain the function of eosinophils and basophils. Eos- are white blood cells that fight parasites; baso- are the least number of white blood cells and deal with allergic reactions.
11. Distinguish the difference between leucopenia and leukocytosis. The decrease of white blood cells; above average white cells.
12. How is hemophilia transmitted? What blood clotting factors can be affected?
Genetically; missing chemicals.
13. Explain the process of blot clot formation. The hormone causes the plasma to become more like a glue.
14. Differentiate between a thrombus, embolus, and city bus. Thrombus is a swollen area. Embolus is a blod clot; city bus is transportation.
15. Explain how Type A blood differs from Type B blood. Different organization.
16. Explain the cause of erythroblastosis fetalis. (What a mouthful): malformation of organs in new born
17. Explain how heparin inhibits blood clot formation. Blocks hormones that cause it to clot.
18. Differentiate between the process of blood clot formation and the process of blood agglutination. One is to heal a wound, the other is to pool the blood.
19. Why is the first Rh-positive baby born to a mother of Rh-negative blood usually not affected? Not enough antibodies first delivery to harm the fetus.

Chapter 13: (1-17) on page 392

1. Describe the heart and its position in the body. The heart is a muscular blood pump, kept far enough above the ground for protection, and surrounded by bones for more protection.
2. Name the four chambers of the heart. Left, right atrium; left, right ventricle
3. What’s the myocardium? The endocardium? Striated heart muscle, interior heart muscles
4. Describe the two layers of the pericardium. Explain the function of the pericardial fluid; serous and fibrous; a double-walled sac that contains the heart and the roots of the great vessels.
5. Define or explain pericarditis and pericardial effusion. Inflammation of the outer layer of the heart, and its spread.
6. What’s systole? Diastole?; contraction (flex); release (extend)
7. Name and give the locations of the 4 heart valves. Inside
8. Explain what is meant by a mitral valve prolapsed. A heart disease of the valve characterized by the displacement of an abnormally thickened mitral valve into the left atrium during systole.
9. Explain what occurs in a myocardial infarction. Heart attack.
10. Trace the flow of blood from the superior vena cava to the aorta. In, around, out
11. What’s angina pectoris? False heart attack.
12. Differentiate between stroke volume and cardiac output. One is size, other is flow
13. Trace the path and name the structures involved in the conduction system of the heart. There are quite a few.
14. What is heart block? What’s bradycardia? What’s tachycardia. First is when one or more arteries are blocked, others are heart conditions.
15. What is fibrillation? Which is more dangerous, atrial fibrillation or ventricular fibrillation? When heart doesn’t contract, and ventricular is.
16. Explain how the tracing on an ECG relate to the electric activity of the heart. The heart is operated on electricity
17. Explain how right-sided heart failure is usually caused by left-sided heart failure. Bad input = bad output.

Chapter 14: (1-14) on page 418

1. Name and describe the main types of blood vessels in the body. Arteries, veins
2. Name the three tissue layers that make up arteries and veins.
3. What’s arteriosclerosis? Hardening of arteries that may lead to heart attack
4. What’s ischemia? Gangrene? First, ; second, blood infection
5. What’s an aneurism? Bursting vein
6. What’s phlebitis? Blood clot
7. Describe both systemic and pulmonary circulation. Lungs, lung system
8. Name and briefly explain the four factors that influence blood pressure. Ratio of sodium & potassium; weight; genetics; diet
9. List 5 mechanism that keep venous blood moving toward the right atrium. Blood pressure, clean veins, etc.
10. What’s circulatory shock? List the 5 types. If it gets stopped. Too many to list
11. Name 4 locations on the body where the pulse can be felt. Wrists, inner thighs, jugular veins, heartbeat
12. Explain how the formation of varicose veins is an example of a positive feedback mechanism. Tells one that circulation needs repair.
13. Explain hepatic portal circulation. How is it different from normal circulation, and what advantages are gained from this type of circulation? The hepatic vein drains the abdominal cavity.
14. Explain the differences between normal post-natal circulation and fetal circulation. Base on the environment of the fetus; explain how these differences make fetal circulation more efficient. Fetal circulation gets help from the mom.
END