HOMEWORK SOLUTION SET 1 (Completed)

BIOLOGY1361
HOMEWORK SOLUTION SET 1

Questions and Answers from “Anatomy: A Brief Summary”; (1 – 16) at the end of the Document.

1. What does “anatomy” mean? Cut off from body
2. Anatomy is the study of .. what? The body (for this course, human)
3. The study of anatomy began at least how long ago? 3500 years
4. What great physician of ancient Greece wrote about the body? Hippocrates
5. What is a cadaver? When were they first used to study anatomy? Dead body used for research; About 300 BC by Herophilos
6. Who wrote what became the textbook about anatomy for some 1500 years? Galen
7. The Arab physician Avicenna wrote a book about anatomy called The Canon of Medicine about 1000 AD
8. What is the name of the Dutch/Belgian physician who challenged some of the earlier research on anatomy in his book about “On the Workings of the Human Body”? Vesalius
9. It was around the time of the Renaissance that, for the first time, prominent universities could teach something about anatomy through …. What? Paintings and drawings.
10. Rembrandt painted an “Anatomy Lesson” featuring as the doctor a man who was also mayor of Amsterdam. Who was that mayor? Nicolaes Tulp
11. The need for bodies to study sometimes lead to body snatching or even murder in many nations. However, that all changed in 1832 with the passage of what? Anatomy Act
12. English physician, William Harvey (1578-1657), described, what? Circulatory system
13. Who developed the concept of “homeostasis”? Claude Bernard
14. What is homeostasis? The process of self regulation of a system (like the body)
15. What does the word “physiology” mean? Study of origins
16. Cell theory was developed by what two scientists? Schleiden and Schwann

Answers to the Questions from Chapter 1: (1 – 13) on page 19.

1. Cut apart, study of origins, study of disease
2. Poor immune system
3. Broken into form and function (i.e., nervous, digestive, reproductive, etc.)
4. The stance of a person, such that most, if not all, the gross anatomy is visible
5. The three planes represent the x, y, z axes, i.e., vertical, horizontal, and the orthogonal third
6. Mediastinim: Heart, blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, etc.; abdominal: liver, gall bladder, stomach, spleen, etc.; pelvic: colon, rectum, urinary, reproductive
7. Nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity: those things in the abdominal and pelvic cavities, which is more than 9 organs in many regions
8. Crainial (brain) and spinal (chord and fluid)
9. Lower extremity is below waist; leg is knee to ankle; thigh is hip to knee
10. For cellular homeostasis: proper food, water, temperature, safety
11. Negative Feedback Loop: sensor (senses), integrator (decides action), effector (makes it happen)
12. Inferior to heart: colon; superior: brain; anterior: skin; posterior: spine; lateral: lungs
13. This is a complex series of sensors, decisions, and reactions vis a vis temperature, circulation, nourishment, water, saline, etc.
Answers to the Questions from Chapter 2: (1-17) on page 37.
1. Element: one of 100+ unique entities on periodic chart; compound: made of two or more elements or molecules; atom: smallest distinct unit with nucleus and electron cloud; molecule: two or more atoms connected.
2. Particles: Proton, neutron, electron
3. Energy level is the location of the electron based on discrete energies
4. Chemical bond: atoms share electrons
5. Electrolyte is a substance that can conduct electricity; ion is a charged particle
6. Organic compounds have carbon in them; otherwise, no
7. Solvent is something that dissolves a solute, such as water dissolves salt; solute is the material being dissolved in a solvent, e.g., salt going into water.
8. The concept of pH is a exponential description of acid concentration
9. Acid gives up electrons; base takes them
10. Protein: complex combination of amino acids; lipid: a fat; carbohydrate: has carbon and a hydroxyl radical; nucleic acid: with nitrogen, too
11. Carbohydrate: energy; protein: tissue; lipid: fat that is used to store energy and to form hormones; nucleic acid: to encode and carry information
12. Atoms are stable once they pretend to emulate noble gases.
13. Proteins are broken down and its parts used for other things by the use of an enzyme
14. Blood is slightly alkaline
15. Functional protein
16. RNA transfer
17. The three hydrogen isotopes vary by number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Answers to the Questions from Chapter 3: (1-21) on page 75.
1. Plasma: proteins and lipids
2. Plasma functions: filter, transmitter, separator
3. Ribosome: protein; Golgi: carbohydrate; mitochondria: energy; lysosome: enzymes; centriole: spindle
4. Nucleus: “brain” of the cell; nucleolus: “brain of the nucleus”
5. Chromatin: a molecule; chromosome: series of proteins with genetic data
6. Diffusion: to spread apart; filtration: to separate by size
7. Ion pump: pumps ions; phagocytes: kill cells
8. Cystic fibrosis is due to lack of chloride ion, resulting in super thick glandular fluid
9. Transcription: transfer of data or information
10. Translation: movement
11. The 4 stages of Mitosis: DNA replication, movement to sides, division, new cells
12. Interphase event: the cell is keepin’ on keepin’ on
13. The 3 epithelial (skin) tissues: squamous, cube, column
14. The 3 connective tissues: fibrous, bone, adipose, and others
15. The 2 muscle tissues: voluntary, involuntary
16. The 2 nervous tissues: axon, Dendron
17. Tissue typing is to identify the various kinds of typing, and it has become important because of so many transplants, and one must match the tissue type of the transplanted material to the patient who is getting the transplant.
18. A cell placed in a higher concentration of saline (salt) would dehydrate – lose water, and possibly die
19. A-A-G-C-T-C-T would be opposed by T-T-C-G-A-G-A
20. The opposite
21. Tissue repair in epithelial: re-growth; in connective: scar tissue and adhesions, in muscle: rebuilding, and in nervous: none.
Answers to the Questions from Chapter 4: (1-14) on pages 99-100.
1. Organ: an organic “machine” made of tissue that performs one or more functions in the operation of a living organism. Organ system: all things related to the organ, including input and output tubes (arteries, veins, etc.)
2. Skin can respond to heat & cold, pleasure & pain, and other tactile things.
3. Skin regulates temperature by assisting the living organism to absorb or give off heat – with more surface area or less area, and so forth.
4. Tendons connect bone to muscle
5. Cardiovascular system deals with getting blood from hither to yon; the lymph system regulates chemicals and fights disease.
6. Organs that rid the body of waste: The primary ones are the bladder (urine) and the bowels (lower intestine) which excretes feces. However the urine comes to the bladder after having gone through the kidneys and/or liver, which serve to clean the blood; and the fecal matter starts in the upper g.i. tract and follows the yellow brick road (well, dark brown brick road) until it exits at the anus.
7. Skeletal system has bone tissue and connective/cartilage tissue which includes tendons and muscles.
8. The eleven (11) organ systems in this chapter are on page 81: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive. Whew.
9. Two functions of integumentary: keep body clean and to wash out diseases; two functions of skeletal: structural support to the entire body and ; muscular: gives body strength and movement; lymphatic: produces cells to fight disease and glands to regulate same; respiratory: brings oxygen into blood and removes carbon dioxide; and urinary: flushes toxins out of the body and regulates fluid.
10. The reproductive system is unique as it produces haploid cells (half the chromosomes) that contribute to the creation of new life forms.
11. Artificial organs / prosthetics include: heart-lung machine, to keep patients alive particularly during surgery; limbs that emulate the movement of arms or legs; dialysis machine that cleans the blood and other fluids such as kidneys might; artificial lung to breath for the person; and sh..tuff like that.
12. The role of drugs (medicines, chemicals) in the process of organ transplants includes fighting of bacteria, viruses, and other germs that may be in the patient or in the donor’s organ; and to fight new invasive germs from the environment.
13. The nervous system reacts to stimuli, and also controls the message center from brain to location; the endocrine system takes action when certain external events occur, i.e., survival, sexual arousal, etc.
14. Balance = homeostasis, which means that there is an optimal equilibrium for each part of the body.
Answers to the Questions from Chapter 5: (1-28) on page 130.
1. Etiology: the study of the causes of disease; idiopathic: a disease that has no known cause (yet); communicable: a type of disease that can be shared with someone else; latent: a disease that can show up some time later than when the victim contracted it (its incubation period)
2. Epidemic is a disease that afflicts a large subset of the population; pandemic afflicts (or has the potential to) all members of the population. Pandemic is worse. Duh.
3. Four factors that help spread disease: physical contact (skin, hands); inhalation (breathing in sneezes); weak immune systems; exposure to infected individuals
4. The eight mechanisms of disease include: exposure, local invasion, response, swelling, redness, increase in temperature, local soreness, ejection of dead matter (pus)
5. A risk factor is an inherited trait in which a person is more susceptible to disease due to his ancestors. E.g., fair skin folk have a risk factor for skin cancer.
6. Six risk factors: high blood pressure, obesity, alcoholism, mental instability, sickle cell, cancer, and lots of others
7. A virus is a tiny living organism that exists only to invade cells and replicate. Mostly, it’s just DNA run amok. The cell then explodes.
8. A bacterium is a tiny single cell life form which feeds on its surroundings, and, in some cases, destroys good living cells causing disease. In other cases, it’s a good member of the ecosystem.
9. Aerobic is a life form which uses air (oxygen) while an-aerobic lives without oxygen in a reducing atmosphere.
10. The best known is the rod-shape, as in the bacillus. An obligate parasite is one what survives only inside a host cell.
11. Fungi are life forms that are neither plant or animal, and that have no chlorophyll. Yeasts and molds are both fungi, but yeasts are anaerobic
12. Protozoa are single cell animals: amoeba, paramecia, and a couple others.
13. Pathogenic animals are parasites that live off other living matter. Mites, ticks, etc. are examples. And members of Congress.
14. Disease can be spread by touch, inhalation, un-safe sex, and ingestion
15. Malignant tumors will get worse until the victim dies; benign are annoying but not deadly.
16. Epithelial benign tumors include carcinomas and other things, like warts, sebacea, measles, acne, and so on.
17. Connective tissue benign tumors include sarcomas in the muscles, bone, tendons, etc.
18. Sarcomas are cancers of the connective tissue, including bone, bone marrow, cartilage, fat.
19. Five factors that play a role in cancer: genetics, diet, air, solar radiation, pollution; these may cause cells to mutate (mutagens promote this)
20. Detecting cancer is done by self examination, x-rays, blood tests, and other invasive techniques (biopsies)
21. Cancer can be treated by surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and diet
22. Four signs of inflammation: redness, higher temperature, soreness, swelling
23. Chemotaxis is reaction to a chemical stimulus
24. Fever is helpful in raising the body temperature higher than the survival temperature of invading germs; and also to alert the victim to take action.
25. Sign: rash; symptom: itch. One can be seen, the other experienced.
26. Can’t change ancestors; but can change diet, exposure, exercise, etc.
27. Spores can hibernate and come out later.
28. Anti-biotic fights bacteria. A vaccine is a weak form of disease that the body develops and immunity for.
Answers to the Questions from Chapter 6: (1-19) on page 159.
1. A membrane is A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal
2. Serous membrane: a membrane that consists of a single layer of thin flat meso-thelial cells resting on a connective-tissue stroma, secrete a serous fluid, and usually line bodily cavities or enclose the organs contained in such cavities; visceral membrane: covers organs; parietal membrane: lines the abdominal cavity
3. Mucous membrane: A membrane lining all body passages that communicate with the air, such as the respiratory, alimentary, and vaginal tracts, and having cells and associated glands that secrete mucus. The junction is just where they meet.
4. Synovial membrane: The connective-tissue membrane that lines the cavity of a joint and produces the synovial fluid; synovial fluid: the “lubricant”
5. Epidermal layers include: 4 or 5 layers depending on the region of skin being considered. Those layers in descending order are the stratum: corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, and basale. The malpighian layer refers to both the basal and spinosum layers.
6. The structure of the dermis is made of layers (stratum) of squamous (flat) cells.
7. Hair: the papilla: the vascular section of where a hair is created with oxygen and nourishment; root: the bottom of the hair follicle; shaft: the hair itself
8. When the arrector pili contracts, then: a bundle of smooth muscle fibers which are attached to several follicles contract, causing the hair to stand straight up (or create ‘goose bumps’). It is caused by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, and, as such, the contraction of the muscle is therefore involuntary. For example, stresses such as cold, fear etc. may stimulate the system and thus cause contraction, but the muscle is not under conscious control.
9. Two receptors of the skin include those that react to heat/cold; and those which react to pain/pleasure.
10. The eccrine glands are located along the skin, are used as heat regulators, and produce a fluid called: sweat.
11. The apocrine glands are located between the skin and the fat layer under the skin, near hair follicles, are used as ways of cooling the body, and produce a fluid called: sweat.
12. The sebaceous glands are located in the skin, are used as body protection, and produce a fluid called: sebum, a waxy/oily substance to keep skin soft.
13. A second degree burn results in superficial blisters, and can involve more or less pain depending on the level of the nerves involved. Second-degree burns involve the superficial (papillary) dermis and may also involve the deep (reticular) dermis layer. Third-degree burns occur when the epidermis is lost with damage to the subcutaneous (below skin) tissue. Burn victims will exhibit charring and extreme damage of the skin. Third-degree burns result in scarring and victims will also exhibit the loss of hair. These burns may require skin grafts. A full thickness burn, aka a fourth degree burn, damages muscle, tendon, and ligament tissue, thus results in charring and catastrophic damage of the hypodermis. In some instances the hypodermis tissue may be partially or completely burned away as well as this may result in a threat to both the life and the limb of the patient. Grafting is required if the burn does not prove to be fatal
14. Skin cancers: aka melanomas, run from acral to soft tissue cancers, at least 11 of them at this point.
15. Skin infection types: too numerous to enumerate
16. Decubitus ulcers are lesions caused by unrelieved pressure; friction; humidity; shearing forces; temperature; age; continence and medication; to any part of the body, especially portions over bony areas like elbow, knee, ankle, etc. Easily prevented and completely treatable if found and can be prevented with early detection. However, bedsores are often fatal – even under the auspices of medical care – and are one of the leading causes of death reported in developed countries, second only to bad drugs. The primary cure and treatment was to remove the pressure by turning the patient every two hours
17. Melanin is produced by the body at the skin to protect from Solar UV radiation.
18. Skin helps regulate temperature by surface area, perspiration, and stuff like that.
19. Between 40% and 50% of the skin would be burned. Determined by an educated guess from using the eyeball.
END: Completed by 730 PM Wednesday Evening